Today a huge part of society believes that "there is no life outside the earth". For supporting there views they raise a point that water is one of the most important component for life and there is no water in liquid state on any other heavenly body in universe.

The fact is, scientists have already discovered a waterworld which made up of only water which is in liquid. Now, two teams of astronomers have discovered the largest water reservoir ever detected in the universe.

This water reservoir is not only the largest one but is also the farthest reservoir of water ever found. This water surrounds a feeding black hole which is also known as quasar, present at 12 billion light years away from earth.

The amount of this water in this reservoir is 140 trillion times all the water present in earth's ocean.

According to Matt Broadford a scientist at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, Calif, "The environment around this quasar is very unique in that it's producing this huge mass of water". Matt Broadford leads one of the two teams which discover this water reservoir.

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•Einstein vs Newton on Gravity!

•WARP DRIVE, a technology to travel faster than the light!

•What happens if you falls into a Black Hole?

Lets know about Quasars:

Quasar is a extremely luminous active galactic nucleus (AGN), in which a supermassive black hole with mass ranging from millions to billions of times the mass of the Sun is surrounded by a gaseous accretion disk.

With time, the gasses attracted by the gravitational pull black hole and it is emitted out in the form of electromagnetic radiation. This electromagnetic radiation is enormous in amount and can be observed in electromagnetic spectrum.

It is now known that quasars are distant but extremely luminous objects, so any light which reaches the Earth is redshifted due to the metric expansion of space. Quasars are believed—and in many cases confirmed—to be powered by accretion of material into supermassive black holes in the nuclei of distant galaxies, as suggested in 1964 by Edwin Salpeter and Yakov Zel'dovich.

Light and other radiation cannot escape from within the event horizon of a black hole, but the energy produced by a quasar is generated outside the black hole, by gravitational stresses and immense friction within the material nearest to the black hole, as it orbits and falls inward.

The brightest quasar in the sky is 3C273 in the constellation of Virgo. It has an average apparent magnitude of 12.8 (bright enough to be seen through a medium-size amateur telescope), but it has an absolute magnitude of −26.7.

Both groups of astronomers studied a particular quasar called APM 08279+5255, which harbours a black hole 20 billion times more massive than the sun and produces as much energy as a thousand trillion suns.


Astronomers expected water vapour to be present even in the early, distant universe, but had not detected it this far away before. There's water vapour in the Milky Way, although the total amount is 4,000 times less than in the quasar, because most of the Milky Way’s water is frozen in ice.

Also read:-

•what exist before nothing?

•What is dark matter and dark energy?

•The String Theory!

Water vapour is a important proof to reveal the facts about these strange body (quasar). In case of this quasar, water vapour surrounds the outline area of black hole which exists some hundred light years.

Presence of this water vapour indicates, this quasar is wetting the gas in X-rays and infrared radiation, and that the gas is unusually warm and dense by astronomical standards.

Although the gas is at a chilly minus 63 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 53 degrees Celsius) and is 300 trillion times less dense than Earth's atmosphere, it's still five times hotter and 10 to 100 times denser than what's typical in galaxies like the Milky Way.

Astronomers measures the gasses like carbon monoxide and water vapour around this quasar and they conclude that "there enough gas is present to feed that hungry black hole until it grows six times of its present size".

According to them they can't predict that when it is going to happen but there is a chance for some gasses to condense and form a star or another phenomenon can takes place in which some of the gasses may ejected out from quasar.

How it sounds that 'scientists are trying to measure the ghost'?
But yes they are taking help of cosmos to measure the actual mass of ghost particle also known as "Neutrino".

A neutrino is a Fermion that interacts only via the weak subatomic force and gravity. The neutrino is so named because it is electrically neutral and because its rest mass is so small that it was long thought to be zero. The mass of the neutrino is much smaller than that of the other known elementary particles.

Here we are going to discuss that how a team of scientists, for the first time have set an upper limit on the mass of the lightest of the three different types of neutrino. Those are sometimes called “ghost particles” because they’re so difficult to detect.

 Scientists with the Karlsruhe Tritium Neutrino experiment, or KATRIN, said  they’ll be taking measurements “well into the next decade” and hope to produce “high-impact results.

Weak interactions create neutrinos in one of three leptonic flavors: electron neutrinos νe), muon neutrinos (νμ), or tau neutrinos (vτ), in association with the corresponding charged lepton.

Although neutrinos were long believed to be massless, it is now known that there are three discrete neutrino masses with different tiny values, but they do not correspond uniquely to the three flavors. A neutrino created with a specific flavor has an associated specific quantum superposition of all three mass states.
Neutrinos are created by various radioactive decays, including the following:

* In beta decay of atomic nuclei or hadrons,
* In natural nuclear reactions such as those that take place in the core of a star,
* Artificial nuclear reactions in nuclear reactors, nuclear bombs, or particle accelerator,
* During a supernova,
* In the spin-down of a neutron star,
* when accelerated particle beams or cosmic rays strike atoms,.

The majority of neutrinos detected in the vicinity of the Earth are from nuclear reactions in the Sun.

As neutrinos are abundant but tiny and elusive, we needed every piece of knowledge available to calculate their mass, and our method could be applied to other big questions puzzling cosmologists and particle physicists alike."

Calculating mass of neutrino takes more than half a million computing hours to process the data; this is equivalent to almost 60 years on a single processor," said cosmologist Andrei Cuceu from University College London.

But Grace did it: the supercomputer returned a mass for the lightest of the three neutrons of 0.086 electron volts (with a lower limit of zero), or around 1.5 × 10-37 kilograms.

The team also calculated a combined mass for the three neutrinos - 0.26 electron volts. Both these results have a confidence interval of 95 percent.

Universe is huge right?

In fact it is so huge that we are not able to measure its whole size as we have been only able to see a limited part of universe known as observable universe. This observable universe contains billions of galaxies, stars and other heavenly bodies.

Now the question rises is, is this universe is endless? Is there is anything exist in outside the universe? And we have only a single answer of this question "The multiverse".

Multiverse is a hypothetical concept according to which "there are multiple universes in existence".

In 1952, Erwin Schrodinger in his lecture in Dublin warned his audience because he thinks, what he is going to say is a type of joke for most of his audience. He said that when his equations seemed to describe several different histories, these were "not alternatives, but all really happen simultaneously".

Hence form there the  birth of concept of multiverse takes place.
We have seen that the movies and comics are using this concept very widely as they give different name for multiverse like multiple dimensions, parallel universe, parallel reality, alternative timeline and many more.

But physics community is totally divided on this topic. Some says multiverse must exist and some says it is just a hypothetical concept.
Scientist community don't take multiverse as a topic for debate or research.

But this doesn't mean that scientists never try to find any evidence for multiverse. In 2010, scientist named as Stephen M Feeney analysed the data collected by Wilkinson microwave Anisotropy probe (WMAP) and regarding to that data he claimed to find the evidence of collision of our universe with other in distant past.

After this, when the plank satellite take part in this discovery and didn't found such collision as it does not detect any gravitational pull on our universe due to any other universe.

Max Tegmark ( a cosmologist) has provided a taxonomy of universes beyond the familiar observable universe. The four levels of Tegmark's classification are arranged such that subsequent levels can be understood to encompass and expand upon previous levels. They are briefly described below.

Level 1. The existence of our universe

This is based on predictions of chaotic inflation according to which the existence of an infinite ergodic universe, which, being infinite, must contain Hubble volumes realizing all initial conditions.

According to chaotic inflation theory, the space ( Multiverse) is expanding and most interesting thing is this expansion will continue forever.

But here are some areas in the universe which stop expanding due to some reasons and form some bubbles and these are named as embryonic universe.

There is no limitations about the shape and size of these bubbles. The main thing is, the shape of these bubbles will decide the physical constant of that particular universe but the laws of physics will remain same in each and every bubbles.

Level 2. Oscillatory and Fecund universe

A cyclic model (or oscillating model) is any of several cosmological models in which the universe follows infinite, or indefinite, self-sustaining cycles.

Forexample, the oscillating universe theory briefly considered by Albert Einstein in 1930 theorized a universe following an eternal series of oscillations, each beginning with a Big Bang and ending with a Big Crunch; in the interim, the universe would expand for a period of time before the gravitational attraction of matter causes it to collapse back in and undergo a bounce.

Level 3. Many world interpretation of Quantum Mechanics

Here, we can't predict about any result as every event is taking place in some universe. According to the MWI, each of these possible observations corresponds to a different universe.

For understanding this, if we throw a dice in air and trying to find the different probabilities then accordingly quantum mechanics, each and every number can come but in different universes. This means, if we get 1 then other five possibilities are going to take place in different universes.

Level 4. Ultimate ensemble

This is Tegmark's own hypothesis also known as ultimate mathematical universe hypothesis.
This level considers all universes to be equally real which can be described by different mathematical structures.

We can say that in this level of multiverse everything is possible means, what we are thinking write now is happening somewhere in some kind of universe which means our each new thought is creating a new universe.

Now after discussing about these levels, you may feel very awkward to read about the theories which says our universe is empty at any place form where we can escape out from our universe and in same way enter in other universes. This theory also explains us about more than 4 dimensions ( at least 10).

But we should not forget that all these are just  ideas, theories or mathematical solutions and it will take centuries to reach at some destination. Hence we can conclude only one thing "multiverse is not a topic for debate as we can take it as a reality so we will find something".

How Stars are formed?

Have you ever question yourself, how these "bulbs of universe" (Stars) formed?

They are present in number of millions and billions hence, they are forming each and every second because the process of star formation is time consuming. Star formation is the process in which the dense region of interstellar space which is also referred as "stellar nurseries" collapses and form stars.

Lets know more about interstellar clouds first:

In the universe, lots of stellar remnants, and diffuse interstellar medium of gases and dusts are present. Our milky way galaxy is composed of about 70% of hydrogen gas and in rest 30% a huge amount of helium is present. But our interstellar medium is also rich in heavy elements released from stars.

These regions of heavy density take a shape of cloud which is further referred as diffuse nebulae which later converts into nebulas with high density and this is the site for formation of a star.

These dense nebulas are also called molecular nebula because most of the Hydrogen content in these nebulas exist in molecular form(H2).
The main reason of star formation is, cloud collapse.

But the question rises in mind is, what lead these cloud to collapse?

This question can be answered by using virial theorem. This theorem states that to maintain equilibrium, the gravitational potential energy must equal twice the internal thermal energy.

In large clouds, the kinetic energy of gas pressure is insufficient to support it then the phenomenon of gravitational collapse takes place. The mass above which a cloud will go under such gravitational collapse is known as jeans mass which depends on the temperature and density of cloud.

Also read:-

•what exist before nothing?

•What is dark matter and dark energy?

•The String Theory!

During cloud collapse dozens to ten thousands of stars form more or less simultaneously which is observable in so-called embedded clusters.

The end product of a core collapse is an open cluster of stars. As the cloud collapses, the material at the centre begins to heat up, Known as a protost, it is this hot core at the heart of the collarapsing cloud that will one day become a star.

Molecular clouds may collide with each other, or a nearby supernova explosion can be a trigger, sending shocked matter into the cloud at very high speeds. (The resulting new stars may themselves soon produce supernovae, producing self-propagating star formation).

Alternatively, galactic collisions can trigger massive starbursts of star formation as the gas clouds in each galaxy are compressed and agitated by tidal forces.

The black holes present in the centre of the galaxy also show its effects on star formation.

In newly formed galaxies, the black hole is small hence the process of star formation is faster as compare to those old galaxies in which a huge black hole is sitting in the centre of the galaxy ejecting radio-frequency-emitting particles at near-light speed can also block the formation.

Star formation takes approximately a billion years and between this time that start goes into different phases. One of the most longest and famous phase is formation of a protostar.

Also Read:-

• Chandrayaan 2: Full mission report

• International Space Station!

• "Hubble Telescope" Our First Eye In The Space!

A protostellar cloud will continue to collapse as long as the gravitational binding energy can be eliminated. This excess energy is primarily lost through radiation.

However, the collapsing cloud will eventually become opaque to its own radiation, and the energy must be removed through some other means.

The dust within the cloud becomes heated to temperatures of 60–100 K, and these particles radiate at wavelengths in the far infrared where the cloud is transparent. Thus the dust mediates the further collapse of the cloud.

Here one noticeable point is that the mechanism of formation of low mass and high mass star is totally different in comparison.

Major discoveries about star formation in the far reaches of the Universe. This is important as far away galaxies are seen far back in time, because of the huge distances their light has needed to reach us.

Studying starlight from the most distant objects Hubble has observed gives clues about how stars formed in the early years of the Universe, and how they have changed over time.

Nowadays, scientists are trying to find the oldest star of universe because by studying these oldest star we can predict the early time of our universe.

Today we are capable to see the formation of stars with the help of evolved telescopes and hence we can know anything about Stars now.

It’s a great news for all that we've found the location of the Vikram Lander on lunar surface & orbiter has clicked a thermal image of Lander. But there is no communication yet.

ISRO scientists are trying to have contact and they have said that it will be communicated soon.

After losing communication from lander as after the altitude of 2.1 km ISRO chairman K Sivan said that they will  trying to establish communication with Vikram lander and will keep trying for next 14 days.

And here we have latest updates from ISRO about finding the exact location of Lander on lunar surface also the orbiter has clicked the thermal image of Vikram lander said ISRO chairman.

ISRO Chief K Sivan said that “ We've found the location of the Vikram Lander on lunar surface & orbiter has clicked a thermal image of Lander. But there is no communication yet. We are trying to have contact. It will be communicated soon.”

ISRO will keep trying to establish contact with the Vikram lander for the next 14 days, and that information coming in from the Orbiter would be crucial.

Chandrayaan 2: Why moon landing failed?

Is there any hope for re-establishing the communication with lander?

Although according to scientists the Vikram lander was programmed in such a way that at the stage when communication was lost at altitude of 2.1 km Lander was on self operator mode. So, it is hoped that lander could be landed safely.

According to ex-ISRO Chief Lander may not have crash-landed.
While there is no official verdict about the lander's condition, not everyone is convinced that the landing ended in a crash.

ISRO Director D Sasikumar had this to say: "We have to find out from the communication data whether it is a soft landing or it is a crash landing.

In my opinion, it is not a crash landing because the communication channel is on between the lander and the orbiter. It should be intact. So, let us hope after the analysis done, we may be able to get the final figure."

If the lander has landed safely without any damage and in the proper angle then there is very much chances to re-establish communication with Vikram lander.

Chandrayaan 2: Why moon landing failed?

And if communication will establish again then the Pragyan rover which is housed inside the Vikram lander will also perform its job properly.
Isro further said that the success criteria was defined for each and every phase of the mission and till date 90 to 95 per cent of the mission objectives have been accomplished and will continue to contribute to lunar science, notwithstanding the loss of communication with the lander.

What Was The Purpose Of Vikram Lander?

The lander of Chandrayaan-2   is named Vikram after Dr Vikram A Sarabhai, the father of the Indian space programme. It is designed to function for one lunar day.

Vikram has the capability to communicate with IDSN at Byalalu near Bengaluru, as well as with the Orbiter and Rover. The Lander is designed to execute a soft landing on moon.

Lander's Payload Includes :-

1. Lander’s instrument for Lunar seismic activity will examine the earthquake movement on the sight;

2. Surface thermo- physical experiment will study the thermal conductivity of the moon; and
3. Langmuir probe will study the surface of the Moon

Although the lander also has a Rover which was to be operated after landing safely. Rover named Pragyan also has to perform several tasks .

Read full article on Chandrayaan 2

Chandrayaan-2  rover is a six-wheeled robotic vehicle Pragyan can travel up to 500 metres and leverages solar energy for its functioning. It can only communicate with the Lander. Pragyan weights just 27 kg.

Rover's Payload Includes :-

1. Rover’s Alpha particle x-ray spectrometer will do detail analysis of Moon’s surface; and

2. Leaser induced breakdown spectroscope will test the surface composition of moon near the landing sight.

Read full article on Chandrayaan 2

"The last part of the operation was not executed in the right manner. It was in that phase that we lost link with the lander, and could not establish contact subsequently," said K Sivan.

The ISRO chief had earlier said the final minutes of the soft landing were the most tricky, calling them "15 minutes of terror".


"This is a very complex process and it is new for us. It is a complex process even for those who have already done it. We are doing this for the first time, so it will be fifteen minutes of terror for us," he said.

The Indian Space Research Organisation (Isro) has lost contact with Vikram Lander of Chandrayaan-2  due to a technical glitch moments before Vikram's scheduled landing on Moon's surface.

On 7 September at 1.37 am, Isro tweeted that the final descent of Vikram Lander has started. It said Vikram Lander has started its powered descent. "Rough braking of Vikram Lander begins," the tweet said.

Read full article on Chandrayaan 2

And for the next few minutes everything went right according to plan. Jubilant Isro scientists at the Mission Operations Complex cheered and clapped as Vikram aced the various stages of descent on to the lunar surface.

At 1.49am, Isro tweeted, "Rough breaking of Vikram Lander ends and fine braking phase starts." Soon, scientists clapped and cheered as Vikram Lander completed the rough braking phase before the fine braking phase started.
It was then that the scientists started becoming tense and went into a huddle.

Isro Chairman K Sivan was seen engaged in intense discussions with some scientists.
Soon the ISRO chairman K Sivan announced that the Vikram lander descent was as planned and normal performance observed up to altitude of 2.1 km.

Subsequently communications from Vikram Lander to ground station was lost, he said, adding the data was being analysed.

Isro has a number of data sets to go over -- those sent back by Vikram before it went incommunicado as well as those possibly captured by various Earth-based space communications devices. Isro is also making constant attempts to re-establish communication with the Vikram lander.

Also read:-

•what exist before nothing?

•What is dark matter and dark energy?

•The String Theory!

What was the purpose of Vikram lander?

The lander of Chandrayaan-2  is named Vikram after Dr Vikram A Sarabhai, the father of the Indian space programme. It is designed to function for one lunar day.

Vikram has the capability to communicate with IDSN at Byalalu near Bengaluru, as well as with the Orbiter and Rover. The Lander is designed to execute a soft landing on the lunar surface. Lander weights 1,471 kg.

Read full article on Chandrayaan 2

Lander's payload includes :-

1. Lander’s instrument for Lunar seismic activity will examine the earthquake movement on the sight;

2. Surface thermo- physical experiment will study the thermal conductivity of the moon; and
3. Langmuir probe will study the surface of the Moon

Although the lander also has a Rover which was to be operated after landing safely. Rover named Pragyan also has to perform several tasks .

Chandrayaan-2  rover is a six-wheeled robotic vehicle Pragyan can travel up to 500 metres and leverages solar energy for its functioning. It can only communicate with the Lander. Pragyan weights just 27 kg.

Rover's payload includes :-

1. Rover’s Alpha particle x-ray spectrometer will do detail analysis of Moon’s surface; and

2. Leaser induced breakdown spectroscope will test the surface composition of moon near the landing sight.

Also Read:-

• Chandrayaan 2: Full mission report

• International Space Station!

• "Hubble Telescope" Our First Eye In The Space!

SO, HAS CHANDRAYAAN-2 FAILED?

Not at all. Landing a rover on the Moon was just one, no matter how ambitious part of the Chandrayaan-2  mission. In fact, the lander Vikram and rover Pragyaan combined carried lesser number of experiments (five) than the Chandrayaan-2 orbiter, which has on-board eight scientific payloads.

Even if the worst was to be assumed that Vikram and Pragyaan perished in the attempt to land on the Moon most of the Chandrayaan-2 mission's experiments will remain on course.

The orbiter, over the course of its one-year mission life, will perform these experiments and beam the results back to Earth. And ISRO chairman recently said that the orbiter has enough fuel to continue the mission of orbiter for seven and half years.

In fact, the one experiment that is most associated with Chandrayaan-2 estimating the quantity of iced water present in the south polar region of the Moon is to be performed by the orbiter and not Vikram or Pragyaan.

The mission life of the Orbiter is one  which should be extended upto seven and half years and it has been placed in a 100X100 km lunar polar orbit. Orbiter weights 2,379 kg.

Also Read:-

•Are we traveling in time?

•"Time travel" a possible phenomenon!

•Time travel in past is possible or not?

Orbiter’s payloads include:-

1. Terrain mapping camera will make digital elevation model of whole Moon;
2. Large area soft x-ray spectrometer will examine the composition of surface of the Moon;

3.  Solar x-ray monitor will provide the input of solar x-ray spectrum;
4.  Imaging IR spectrometer will find the evidence of presence of ice and minerals;
5. Orbiter will examine the polar region of moon for finding the evidence of ice under the surface;
6. Atmospheric composition explorer-2 will study the environment of Moon;

7. Orbiter high resolution camera will take pictures of the surface the Moon; and
8. Its dual frequency radio science experiment will study the Ionosphere of the Moon.

Although we have still hope as ISRO chairman recently said that their scientists are still trying to establish communication with Vikram lander and will keep trying for next 14 days.

In the interview to DD News, K Sivan also said that all Isro missions including Gaganyaan will take place as per schedule.

Meanwhile, the space agency said in a statement that Chandrayaan-2  mission was a highly complex mission, which represented a significant technological leap compared to the previous missions of Isro, which brought together an orbiter, lander and rover to explore the unexplored South Pole of the Moon.

Isro further said that the success criteria was defined for each and every phase of the mission and till date 90 to 95 per cent of the mission objectives have been accomplished and will continue to contribute to lunar science, notwithstanding the loss of communication with the lander.

Chandrayaan-2 mission is conducted by Indian space agency ISRO and has been launched on 22 July 2019, at 14:43 IST using GSLV MK III rocket from Satish Dhawan space centre located at Sriharikota at Andhra Pradesh.

Read full article on Chandrayaan 2

Total journey time of Chandrayaan-2 will be of 48 days. Chandrayaan 2 will first orbit the Earth for 17 days, then the Chandrayaan will be separated. It will take 5 days to reach in Moon’s orbit after escaping from Earths orbit. After entering the Moon’s orbit it will orbit it for 28 days and finally will land on Moon’s surface.

In the first week of August, Chandrayaan-2 sent first pictures of Earth as viewed in space as it was moving away from the planet.




In a series , Isro shared the Earth's pictures clicked by LI4 Camera of Chandrayaan-2's Vikram lander on August 3, 2019.
The pictures show the Earth in different hues.

Chandrayaan has sent 5 images of Earth from different altitude. 

(See here).
(See full images)

On August 22, Isro announced on Twitter that Chandrayaan-2 shot an image of the Moon from a height of over 2,000 km as it flies around the satellite, preparing to land a rover on the lunar surface.

The image was shot on August 21 and was taken from a height of 2,650 km, Isro said.

In the photo, Isro highlighted two significant lunar landmarks -- the Apollo crater and the Mare Orientale basin.

Chandrayaan has released total 4 images of moon from different altitude. 

(See here)

(See full images)

Chandrayaan-2 reached the Moon on August 20, when it entered the lunar orbit. On August 21, Chandrayaan-2 performed a manoeuvre to lower its orbit around the Moon.

The spacecraft will perform several such manoeuvres over the next two weeks to bring itself closer and closer to the Moon.

The Chandrayaan-2 mission's D-Day is September 2, when the lander Vikram will separate from the spacecraft and get into a lunar orbit of its own.

Early morning on September 7, Vikram will begin a 15-minute powered descent at the end of which it will land near the south pole of the Moon, making India the only country in the world to perform a 'soft landing' near the lunar south pole.